Introduction to Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Introduction to Philosophy Essay I. Pre-Socratic Period also known as the Cosmological Period (cosmos meaning universe) *questions about human existence and subsistence (basic needs) Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers: Anaxagoras Thales (he held that water is the fundamental stuff of all things, saying â€Å"All is water†) Anaximander Xenophanes Heraclitus Anaximenes Empiricism – a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience II. Socratic Period also known as the Era of Scientific Discoveries III. Church Period also known as the Theological/Dogmatic Period. Dogmatic – from the word dogma (teachings of the Catholic church) Martin Luther – the most controversial bishop during his time; he questioned the teachings of the Catholic church IV. Rebellion Period also known as the Period of Protestantism *Martin Luther started Protestantism and established the Lutheran church; he questioned the indispensability of the pontis and the institution of the sacraments (holy order and marriage) division of the Catholic church: Roman Catholic Greek Orthodox 4 legal systems: English law Roman law Arabic/Mohammedan law Anglo-American law. V. Renaissance Period renaissance meaning rebirth also known as the Arts and Literature Period (which focused on religion) VI. Modern Period also known as the Period of Industrialization ? introduction to machines ? social problem of unemployment arose ? battle between man and machines 2 social classes: ? bourgeoisie – the ruling class of the two basic classes of capitalist society, consisting of capitalists, manufacturers, bankers, and other employers. The bourgeoisie owns the most important of the means of production, through which it exploits the working class ?proletariat the class of workers, especially industrial wage earners, who do not possess capital or property and must sell their labor to survive, the lowest or poorest class of people Friedrich Engels – mentor of Karl Marx *. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels campaigned for a classless society known as communism communism the political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production (e. g. , mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources of a society; people don’t have private ownership. Das Kapital – one of the major works of the 19th-century economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818–83), in which he expounded his theory of the capitalist system, its dynamism, and its tendencies toward self-destruction. He described his purpose as to lay bare â€Å"the economic law of motion of modern society. † Lenin and Stalin – leaders of the Russian Revolution who first introduced communism COMMUNISM (zero ownership) SOCIALISM (ownership by few) DEMOCRACY (controlled by the majority of people) Definition of Philosophy from the words â€Å"de finire† meaning â€Å"to limit† 3 types of definition: 1. Etymological – derived from the word â€Å"etymos† meaning â€Å"origin† Etymology of Philosophy by Pythagoras philia (love) sophia (wisdom) greek words 2. Nominal – derived from the word â€Å"nomen† meaning â€Å"name† 3. Real definition – maybe conceptual or operational definition Real definition of Philosophy a science of beings that investigates the ultimate causes of things, events, etc. , with the aid of human reason alone *philosophers investigate by asking questions human reason – the instrument in philosophy branches of science: ? natural ? social ? Physical botany philosophy e. g. physics e. g. e.g. beings – subject matter of philosophy; anything that exists 2 types of beings: a) potential – exists without intrinsic contradiction b) actual – exists with intrinsic contradiction uncreated God (theology focused on the study of God) created living man plants animals soul soul soul rational vegetative sensitive non-living universe (cosmology study of the universe) outside the universe (metaphysics from the word meta meaning beyond) principles of life soul life spirit – principle of unity what makes man unique? his characteristics characteristics of man: ? body and soul (rational psychology – study of soul existence) ? body without soul – corpse ? soul without body – ghost ? intellect – to know the â€Å"truth† (logic – correct reasoning; epistemology – validity of human knowledge) ? will – in search of â€Å"good† (ethics or moral philosophy) branches of philosophy connected to man rational psychology deals with spirituality and religion logic deals with mental and psychological circumstances epistemology deals with physiological/bi ological aspect ethics deals with the physical aspect of man Phenomenological method – method of knowing man. Edmund Husserl – a mathematician, modern philosopher, and the main proponent of phenomenology steps in phenomenological method: i. epoche – method of bracketing man’s natural attitudes (e. g. , biases or prejudices) ii. eidetic reduction – from the word â€Å"eidos† meaning â€Å"essence†; method of reducing the events to its essence to know the real importance of the phenomenon iii. phenomenological transcendental reduction – method of reducing the essence to its subject ? to the very activity itself love – disinterested giving of oneself to other being kinds of love: fraternal. paternal/maternal erotic romantic Understanding the Nature of Philosophical Inquiry *on the distinction between philosophy and natural science natural science ? scientific investigation â€Å"What is Philosophy† by Lauer, S. J. (philosophy in physical science) *can philosophy be taught? philosophy can be defined by doing it *why do we harm philosophy when we define it? philosophy is essentially a dynamic process, the attempt to define it is to stop the process *philosophy is an attitude, a way of life, responsible thinking and not a discipline; not a body of knowledge.

Dynamic Capabilities

Dynamic Capabilities Making a competitive difference through Dynamic Capabilities Summary Purpose of report †¢ Method followed (if necessary) †¢ Main findings 1 Strategy and Resource-Based View Strategy of a company is about setting a direction towards the success. Competitive strategy is about being different from the competitors; its about choosing a unique set of activities aiming for a greater value to deliver. the resource-based perspective highlights the need for a fit between the external market context in which a company operates and its internal capabilities. The resource-based view is the classical view on strategy that explains how competitive advantage within firms is achieved and how that advantage of firms can be sustained over the time (Barney, 1991). Strategy is about combining activities (Horn, p86). How More recent studies suggest that understanding of the RBV (Barney, Eisenhardt, Teece, 2000) should be enhanced by the extended understanding of dynamic capabilities. resource-based view is grounded in the perspective that a firms internal environment, in terms of its resources and capabilities, is more critical to the determination of strategic action than is the external environment. Another view (Peteraf, Bergen, 2003) proposes to see the Resource-based view and Market-based view as compliments to one another. In that way the authors tackle the most common criticism on Resource-based view that it is insufficiently linked to the market. The role of similarity or rather dissimilarity in from the point of view of resource type can be a stepping stone for many managers, because they fail to analyse the competitors that are not producing the exactly the closest substitute product. The keyword here is resource functionality that should be addressed when deciding on a competitive strategy, as often resource packages that are dissimilar in type may serve as effective substitutes in terms of producing the same end product. Moreover, the authors here introduce a new edge on resource-side, such as functionality to counteract the market-side element of focus substitute detection. As the result, this draws on the importance of capabilities, the focus here is not only on pro duct markets, but also on the competitors activities in resource markets as well. 2 Dynamic Capabilities The theory of dynamic capabilities is thought to have arisen from a fundamental weakness of the resource-based view of the firm. The RBV has been criticized for ignoring factors surrounding resources, instead assuming that they simply â€Å"exist†. Considerations such as how resources are developed, how they are integrated within the firm and how they are released have been under-explored in the literature. Dynamic capabilities attempt to bridge these gaps by adopting a process approach: by acting as a buffer between firm resources and the changing business environment, dynamic resources help a firm adjust its resource mix and thereby maintain the sustainability of the firms competitive advantage, which otherwise might be quickly eroded. So, while the RBV emphasizes resource choice or the selecting of appropriate resources, dynamic capabilities emphasize resource development and renewal (Barney, 1991). According to wade and Hulland (2004), IS resources may take on many of the attributes of dynamic capabilities, and thus may be particularly useful to firms operating in rapidly changing environments. Thus, even if IS resources do not directly lead the firm to a position of superior sustained competitive advantage, they may nonetheless be critical to the firms longer-term competitiveness in unstable environments if they help it to develop, add, integrate, and release other key resources over time. The most common definition on what dynamic capabilities are is defined as â€Å"the firms ability to integrate, build, and recon internal and external competences to address rapidly changing environments†. The basic assumption of the dynamic capabilities framework is that todays fast changing markets force firms to respond quickly and to be innovative (Teece,1997). Are they easily imitable? Some says yes According to (Eisenhardt, Martin, 2000) Dynamic capabilities are more subsituable than it is usually thought. What is their nature? It is thought the the dynamics of the market influence can have some impact on the nature of dynamic capabilities; .. In moderately dynamic markets dynamic capabilities resemble the traditional conception of routines (Eisenhardt, Martin, 2000). In contrast, in high velocity markets, they are simple, highly experiential and fragile processes with unpredictable outcomes. Besides, in another context (Grant, 1996, Pisano, 1994) they are explained as the resources that are transformed, integrated together and recombine to generate a new value creating strategy. In that way, they are drivers behind the creation, evolution and recombination of other resources into new sources of competitive advantage (Henderson and Cockburn, 1994; Teece et al, 1997). Based on these premises (Eisenhardt, Martin, 2000) dynamic capabilities are defined as: The firms processes that use resources specifically the processes to integrate, recon, gain and release resources to match and even create market change. Dynamic capabilities thus are the organisational and strategic routines by which firms achieve new resource configuration as markets emerge, collide, split, evolve and die. An alternative definition that abandons the idea of high-velocity markets as the necessary context to explain dynamic capabilities says that (Zollo, Winter, 2002): A dynamic capability is a learned and stable pattern of collective activity through which the organization systematically generates and modifies its operating routines in pursuit of improved effectiveness. This definition clearly redefines the role and function of dynamic capabilities, since it stresses their connection with learning processes. Dynamic capabilities arise from learning; they constitute the firms systematic methods for modifying operating routines (Zollo, Winter, 2002). An example is given by an organisation that develops from its initial experiences with acquisitions or joint ventures a process to manage such projects in a systematic and relatively predictable fashion. The ability to plan and effectively execute postaquisition integration processes is an example of a dynamic capability, as it involves the modification of operating routines in both the acquired and the acquiring unit. In short, learning mechanisms shape operating routines directly as well as by the intermediate step of dynamic capabilities. 5 Strategic positioning and Competitive Advantage Strategy is conceptualized as a firms realized position in its competitive market (Mintzberg, 1987; Porter, 1980). Each firms strategic position is supported by its resources and capabilities, reflecting the idea that resources and positions are two sides of the same coin (Wernerfelt, 1984). In a constant strive for higher performance and long term successful strategy a question on strategic balance arises. Similarity among firms has raised an important question on strategic balance, how do firms chose to position themselves among their rivals? What is the value ( Deephouse, 1999) of being different (differentiation)or what is the value of being the same (conformity). Abrahmson and Hegeman (1994) observed that strategic conformity reduces both competitive risks and opportunities for competitive advantage. This can be solved by an integrative theory of strategic balance, because as evidence suggests (Deephouse, 1999) moderately differentiated firms have higher performance than either highly conforming or highly differenciated firms. However, (Deephouse, 1999) draws on strategic similarity as a firm-level construct representing the extent to which a firms strategic position resembles the strategic positions of other firms competing in its market at a particular point in time. Strategy and IKEA Positioning means performing different activities from rivals or performing similar activities in different ways. If a company is prepared to satisfy all needs of all customers it loses the distinctive positioning edge. Since IKEA begun in 1943 it has grown into a successful global network of stores with its unique retailing concept. The global furniture retailer based in Sweden, also has a clear strategic positioning. IKEA targets young furniture buyers who want style at low cost. What turns this marketing concept into a strategic positioning is the tailored set of activities that make it work. IKEA has chosen to perform activities differently from its rivals (see 2). In comparison to traditional furniture merchandisers who display just a fraction of their stock, IKEA takes a step further and displays all their stock in a room like settings, that way selling the whole concept of modern living. Also, by selling their own low cost designs in ready to assemble packages to fit its positioning, IKEA trades off service for cost. Customers are expected to do their own pickup and delivery, and despite of their low-cost position that comes from having customers do it themselves, IKEA offers a number of extra services that its competitors do not. Such as, childcare and extended opening hours, services that are uniquely aligned with the needs of its young and, middle class customers. As long as consumers from Moscow to Beijing and beyond keep striving to enter the middle class, there will be a need for IKEA. Currently with 226 stores worldwide it hosts 410 million delighted shoppers a year. Positioning choices determine not only which activities a company will perform and how it will con individual activities but also how activities relate to one another. While operational effectiveness is about achieving excellence in individual activities, or functions, strategy is about combining activities. What is the most important key factor in the success of IKEA? The answer is simply that it all is of an equal importance. Activities that form a system act as compliments to one another generating value for a company, which is a way strategic fit creates competitive advantage and superior profitability.

The Ambivalence Of Abortion :: essays research papers

The Ambivalence of Abortion Whether or not abortion is morally right or wrong, the fact remains that a woman has the right to make her own decisions. If a woman decides to have an abortion it is her right to do as she pleases with her body. It is understandable that many may disagree with abortion being legal, but that is no reason not to allow others to have a different opinion. Nevertheless, the question of whether abortion is morally right should be left up the conscience of the woman whom is making the decision and not through judging eyes not going through the same situation. There are more pros than cons to having an abortion. For instance, a woman with a family of four who are barely surviving discovers she is pregnant. She decides to have an abortion because she cant afford the baby. That might have saved the world of another sad story of a mother abusing and neglecting her unwanted child. Unfortunately, sometimes a mother can run the risk of death if they go through with the pregnancy. Would it be fair to let the mother of two young children die because SOME PEOPLE don't believe in abortion? On the other hand, it may be true that young women are taking advantage of the fact that they can easily have an abortion. Some say they are substituting birth control with abortion. Nevertheless, no one ever said we can't place restrictions on abortion but we can't let one bad apple spoil the whole bunch. The fact remains that although some might take advantage of the situation, it is unconstitutional to deny the opportunity to someone who REALLY has no other alternative but abortion. Every woman (and person) has the right to make their own decisions. No one has the right to deny another of their own opinion. Some may not believe in or agree with abortion and that's perfectly fine but it does not give them the right to deny others of the option. Finally, a woman has the right to decide whether or not to have an abortion and whether or not to feel guilty

New Ways of Learning in the Workplace :: Workforce Work Working Job Essays

New Ways of Learning in the Workplace In today's "high performance organizations," workers must be prepared for continuous on-the-job growth and development. Given the increased age, variety of experiences, and diverse lifestyles and cultures of the working population, it is understandable that adult education practices must move beyond the traditional model of teachers as purveyors of knowledge and learners as passive recipients. Methods and techniques that draw upon workers' previous experiences, link concepts and practices, and encourage reflection and the transfer of knowledge from one situation to another are vital to the learning process. This Digest addresses some of the new ways to learn at work, such as action learning, situated learning, and incidental learning. Action Learning Action learning is a systematic process through which individuals learn by doing. It is based on the premise that learning requires action and action requires learning. It engages individuals in just-in-time learning by "providing opportunities for them to develop knowledge and understanding at the appropriate time based on immediate felt needs" (Lewis and Williams 1994, p. 11). Learning itself is the desired outcome of action learning, not problem solving. It is the learning that occurs in the process of finding solutions to problems that constitutes action learning. It is a type of learning that helps individuals respond more effectively to change. Action learning has been adopted in the workplace as a viable approach to experiential management education and development and an important element of a training and development strategy (Vince and Martin 1993). It involves the members of an organization in group situations with the goal of helping each group member learn through the process of finding solutions to their own problems. Through this process, learners increase their self-awareness and develop new knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and skills for making changes and redefining their roles within new contexts (Williams 1992). The properties of action learning clarify its relevance to workplace learning (Beaty et al. 1993): Learning is based on the solution of real problems. Learning occurs with and from others who are also engaged in managing real problems. Members of the group are responsible for solving their own problems, unlike those on a project team or task force. Members of the group are concerned with implementing actions, moving beyond the stages of analysis and recommendation. Situated Learning Situated learning is another approach that is receiving attention in the field of adult and workplace learning. In the situated learning approach, knowledge and skills are taught in contexts that reflect how the knowledge will be used in real-life situations.

Attribution theory :: essays research papers

ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF FRITZ HEIDER Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This article starts off by a man having his wife serve on a jury in a federal case involving conspiracy, racketeering, drug dealing, armed robbery, and extortion. There were seven defendants and one that escaped from police custody. The key government witness was an ex-gang member named Larry who was called â€Å"the Canary† by the defendants because he turned informer. For two months Jean, the wife, listened to Larry’s testimony and tried to figure out whether his account of the incident was credible or not. A question in her mind was that whether his behavior on the stand was that of pathological liar, a rejected pal seeking revenge, a petty crook who would say anything to save his own skin, or and honest witness dedicated to the truth? All this falls into Fritz Heider’s attribution theory saying that we all tend to rationalize in the same way. Fritz said that the theory of attribution is the process of drawing inferences. This would be seeing a person act and immediately reaching a conclusion that goes beyond mere sensory information. Example: Larry yawns while on the stand. Your immediate conclusive reaction would be â€Å"is he bored, afraid, tired, or indifferent†. In the article it says that Heider would see us as naà ¯ve psychologist bringing common sense to bear on an interpersonal judgment. It also says that we can’t help it to make these judgments. This is because we make personality judgments in order to explain otherwise confusing behavior. Heider says that there’s another reason for making causal inferences from behavior. The reason is because we want to know what to expect in the future. He says prediction is a survival skill. Example: Jean comes face-to-face with one of the defendants, in her jury trail, outside a train station. Mildly anxious, she quickly turned aside. Accurate attributions can help us know which people might do us harm. The article also talks about attribution as being a three-step process through which we perceive others as causal agents. The three-step process talked about includes perception of the action (You saw it), judgment of intention (You/they meant to do that), and attribution of disposition (What you think of the action). Analysis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To begin, in the case with Jean trying to figure out whether Larry’s story was credible and how to categorize his behavior. In my opinion I would think him turning informer

Childhood Is The Best Part Of One’s Life Narrate Your Experience

Many a time, I have longed for my childhood days. This is especially true at times when I would like to escape from the torture of examinations and homework. Furthermore, my childhood was filled with countless memorable moments that I would love to relive. Many, who have happy childhood memories, would also, I am sure, feel the same.Childhood is a period which is associated with fun and play. The child hardly cares or knows what the adult thinks of him. He frolics with his childhood playmates in the sand, mud or water. Through his mother may chide him for his pranks, she may, secretly in her heart, wish that she too could be as carefree and happy as her child.Children normally do not have any major responsibilities to shoulder. Political, economic, social and family problems do not disturb them. They may be confused because they can not comprehend the problem, but most of them will not go through heartbreaking moments over them.However, the above beautifully painted childhood phase i s not true in the case of all children. There are children who are abused and exploited and who suffer from dire poverty. In Ethiopia and other poor countries, children are afflicted with many diseases and continually suffer the pangs of hunger. They have to shoulder the responsibilities of adults, looking for food and taking care of their younger siblings.These cases, however, may be considered as exceptions. Many still feel that the average child’s life is much merrier. Adult life is filled with responsibilities. Yet, responsibilities need not be viewed negatively. There are many joys that come with responsibilities. For example, I always experience great joy and satisfaction when I do well in my exam after studying hard for it.Therefore, in my view, childhood can be looked back upon as one of the best periods in one’s life. With a positive attitude, a person can experience happiness in any period of his life.

Ethics Awareness Inventory Analysis Essay

The Ethics Awareness Inventory (EAI) is a test created by the Williams Institute of Ethics and Management to provide individuals with a general approach towards ethical issues. This test broadly categorizes your profile in four categories namely, character (C), obligation (O), results (R), and equity (E). This paper will discuss my EAI profile, and how the results apply to my professional and personal development. In the end, I’ll also explain how my educational experience has affected my ethical thinking. According to the Ethics Awareness Inventory test, I’m most closely aligned with character, and least closely aligned with equity. This means that I’m a person that believes that having a good moral character is more important than achieving the results or completing their obligation. I believe that honesty and integrity are the most important characteristics of a ethical person. I look beyond people’s actions, and look deep into their character to decide whether they are ethical or not. I also believe that there are some standards regarding right and wrong, and that everyone is fully aware of them. They just need the proper willpower to act upon them. My EAI test also shows that I value obligation rather than results, which implies that I look into the best interests of the company, and don’t really consider the consequences of my action. I treat everyone like human beings and give them respect, rather than looking at them as means to an end. It also implies that I’m a team player. My EAI score also suggests that I believe that an ethically and morally correct decision shouldn’t necessarily be popular. In fact, most of the decisions I make are unpopular in the masses, and I think that is a measure of great character to stand up against a crowd. Regarding my professional and personal development, I always ask my self three questions when faced with an ethical dilemma: is it right for me; is it right for the company; and is it right for the customer? I believe that a decision should be in favor of the customer and the organization as well. I always look for a win-win situation when faced with a problem. Another way I solve my ethical dilemmas is by looking at the character of the person and the intention behind it. When I feel strongly about an ethical decision, then I ignore the rules and make the decision based on the person’s character. Lastly, I consider that my educational experience has tremendously affected my ethical thinking. When confronted with an ethical dilemma, I’m able to analyze the situation calmly. Furthermore, through my learning experience, I’m able to value the diversity and appreciate the opinions of others. By appreciating the point of others, I’ve been able to successfully avoid and/or solve conflicts. Furthermore, my educational experience has helped me increase my awareness about the choices I have regarding making decisions. I’ve learnt that I’m not right in every situation and that it’s better to be more flexible when dealing with other people. In conclusion, I believe that it’s extremely important for every individual to understand their ethical inclinations. Although there are no right or wrong answers in the test, I believe that by taking this test a person is better equipped to defend his personal and ethical decision. Furthermore, a person is better able to understand himself and his values. Reference University of Phoenix. (2010). Ethics Awareness Inventory. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from University of Phoenix, Week Two, rEsource. GEN480—Interdisciplinary Capstone Course Web site.